Special Dossier : Social Inequalities and Climate Change
Climate change exacerbates pre-existing social inequalities in our societies.
This section of the special dossier looks at the impacts of climate change on inequalities related to health, northern communities, sex and gender, and adaptation measures, as well as the resulting issues.
Social inequalities in health
A social inequality in health is characterized by a variation in the health status of individuals arising from social criteria. For example, people with lower incomes are more at risk of health problems.
Climate change exacerbates social inequalities and widens gaps in health determinants. Populations suffering from health inequalities are undeniably predisposed to disproportionate direct and indirect impacts from climate change:
Figure 2 : Climate change and health equity. Source: Campagna et al. 2023.
Direct impacts include those caused by heat waves, floods and storms, in particular.
Indirect impacts include the disruption of ecosystems, increases in infectious diseases, and increases in conflicts linked to the scarcity of natural resources.
Heat waves and air pollution
In Quebec, heat waves and air pollution are two major phenomena that directly affect health and exacerbate inequalities. Air pollution, which is accentuated by episodes of extreme heat, leads to a concentration of pollutants that aggravates chronic illnesses and increases premature deaths.
Generally speaking, urban populations are more affected by these two hazards. This is an example of the territorial inequalities related to climate change. On one hand, not all regions are affected in the same way, and on the other, not all individuals have the same level of mobility. Some populations can’t afford to live on the outskirts of cities or in the countryside, leaving them more exposed to heat waves and air pollution.
In concrete terms...
Across Canada, air pollution-related premature deaths are highest in densely populated areas. In Quebec, air pollution has been responsible for 4,000 premature deaths, according to a 2021 Health Canada report.
Furthermore, heat waves and air pollution mainly affect populations with lower socio-economic status. These people have limited access to green spaces and air conditioning, and live in housing that is generally poorly insulated or is located in urban heat islands.
A study carried out in nine major Quebec cities in 2011 showed that urban heat islands are generally inhabited by people who are poor or of modest means. In Montréal, the neighbourhoods with the lowest socio-economic status account for 73% of urban heat islands, while those with the highest status account for only 20%. Also in Montréal, a study showed that people with lower incomes are more likely to live near major roads, and are therefore more exposed to air pollution.
People with disabilities
Climate change has a disproportionate impact on people with disabilities. The main cause of this vulnerability is societal discrimination, i.e. inequalities in terms of food security, access to drinking water, health services, education and housing.
This discrimination limits access to the resources and services required for adaptation. Although they represent 22% of the Canadian population, people with disabilities are under-represented in climate policy, despite their potential for innovative contributions to adaptation solutions.
The information provided and the measures taken in the context of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and heat waves, often overlook the needs and realities of people with disabilities. These individuals have limited access to the resources, infrastructures and services they need to adapt. That means that during an extreme event, people with disabilities face an increased mortality rate and risk of morbidity. The vulnerability of this population is accentuated by physical, cognitive and sensory impairments. In addition, climate-related emergencies can aggravate symptoms and escalate human rights violations such as neglect, abandonment and abuse.
In concrete terms...
During the July 2018 heat wave in Montréal, 25.8% of deaths were of people with schizophrenia, even though they make up only 0.6% of the population. In fact, the percentage of deaths during heat waves is three times higher in people with mental health problems than in the general population.
Inequalities for northern communities
The climate in Canada’s northern regions is warming three times faster than the global average. In Quebec, climate change is having a major impact in the north of the province, disproportionately affecting the well-being of its inhabitants. Regions north of the 50th parallel, such as Nord-du-Québec and Côte-Nord, face major socio-economic challenges. Population growth and the intensification of development activities are putting pressure on these areas and profoundly altering local lifestyles.
Although some communities have already established adaptation plans to address these challenges, the scale and speed of climate change may exceed the adaptive capacity of northern communities.
Figure 2 : Rising temperatures in northern Canada (From: Canadian Climate Institute, 2022)
In Nunavik, the cold season could be considerably shortened in the coming decades due to rising temperatures. Winter roads, which are essential for connecting isolated coastal communities and guaranteeing access to basic services, will become increasingly impassable.
Rising temperatures are also causing the thawing of the permafrost, which damages roads, buildings and airports, reducing access to some areas, individual mobility, and access to emergency healthcare. Ultimately, these consequences will entail major costs for local residents, further widening inequalities in terms of culture, health, well-being and economic prosperity.
A variety of other cascading impacts are foreseeable, such as:
Rising water levels leading to coastal erosion and submergence
Changing precipitation and ice melt patterns, leading to extreme precipitation and more frequent flooding
More extreme weather events, such as thunderstorms which can lead to forest fires
The Indigenous peoples in Quebec
It’s important to pay attention to the unique situation of Quebec’s First Nations and Inuit (FNI) people. They have a close relationship with the land and depend on their environment on a daily basis. This puts them at the forefront of climate change impacts. Quebec’s First Nations and Inuit people also face a number of social inequalities, including geographic and political marginalization and material disadvantages. As a result, they suffer increased economic and psychological distress.
Indigenous Perspectives | Ouranos
Indigenous Environmental Justice - Indigenous Peoples: Environmental and Climate Justice
Quebec’s northern regions experience specific intersectional inequalities. The historical and ongoing effects of colonialism contribute to the current socio-economic and political marginalization of northern communities. Climate change is exacerbating these pre-existing territorial inequalities. Housing insecurity is higher in Canada’s northern regions, and health and transportation services are inadequate. These areas will face unique and potentially devastating risks if these shortfalls are not remedied.
To alleviate this imbalance, Indigenous knowledge and practices should be considered equal to scientific knowledge. This knowledge is often under-represented, but it has great potential in terms of adaptation and makes an active contribution to the resilience of northern areas. This knowledge needs to be developed through a genuine process of co-creation with each nation and local governments.
Sex and gender inequalities
In Quebec, the connection between gender issues and climate change is not well known. It’s important to search for solutions, to raise awareness of these issues and to integrate them into adaptation efforts. Public policies and environmental groups focusing on climate change don’t necessarily recognize the links between gender and climate change, which contributes to deepening inequalities. Although women’s experience of climate change is highly complex, scientific evidence shows that they are disproportionately affected compared to men.
These inequalities can be explained first and foremost by the persistence of gendered roles. In Quebec, there are disparities in terms of work and household tasks, in particular. Pay inequalities limit women's ability to adapt, with women earning less than men on average, and more often living in poverty. In Quebec, women’s average hourly wage is only 91% of men’s, while that of immigrant women is only 85% of that of native-born men. For these reasons, women are generally more vulnerable than men to the effects of climate change, which aggravates economic stress, livelihood insecurity, food insecurity and mental disorders. Furthermore, women are more often responsible for caring for others, such as children, the elderly, and those who are unwell. The position of informal caregiver, resulting from the persistence of gendered roles, makes women more vulnerable to climate change.
Worldwide, women are 14 times more likely to die than men during extreme weather events. They must both recover from the event and continue to perform their family duties. They may face a lack of health resources, be victims of gender-based violence, or suffer increased economic or psychological stress. These unequal gender impacts are also observed in Canada when climate-related disasters occur.
Although the experience of extreme events is not homogeneous, some groups of women may be more vulnerable due to intersectional inequalities, such as Indigenous women, other racialized women, migrant women, low-income women, single mothers, and women with health problems.
While they are subject to differentiated impacts, women are also under-represented in public decision-making bodies on climate change. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) recognizes the importance of women’s participation in decision-making and adopted a gender equality objective in 2012. However, parity has still not been achieved within the membership of UNFCCC bodies, with an average of only 33% women in 2021 and 39% in 2022.
The UNFCCC has 198 member countries, and each state’s track record in terms of gender balance varies widely. When we analyze women’s participation by region, we see that resource inequalities, regional disparities in power, and historical representation issues significantly influence the gaps between men’s and women’s participation.
Furthermore, women’s experiences should not be systematically generalized as those of “victims” or “vulnerable people.” They also have significant power and an essential role to play in decision-making to combat climate change.
Inequalities arising from adaptation measures
Climate change adaptation refers to the initiatives and measures taken to reduce the vulnerability and strengthen the resilience of natural systems and humans to the actual or predicted effects of climate change. Although climate change adaptation is intended to be inclusive and collaborative, it can still contribute to social inequalities.
While urban greening initiatives offer environmental and psychosocial benefits, they can also amplify inequalities between population groups due to eco-gentrification. This is reflected in rent increases due to improved living conditions in the neighbourhood. Neighbourhoods with more greenery are more likely to be home to wealthier populations, while lower-income individuals are more likely to live in less vegetated areas.
These differences in access to urban greening measures can also be explained by territorial inequalities inherited from previous political choices and development decisions made by institutions. In Montréal, for example, the outlying neighbourhoods where immigrants and racialized people naturally settled from 1940 onwards received little investment from the public authorities, who focused on downtown renewal policies and the conversion of industrial areas. A report on systemic racism in Montréal highlights the unequal distribution of public resources, particularly when it comes to green spaces. Other studies in North America show that access to natural environments and protected areas varies considerably according to ethnic and cultural origin, income, and gender.
Low-carbon gentrification is characterized by the modification of the social composition of urban neighbourhoods due to the energy-efficient renovation of housing to adapt to climate change.
People with low socio-economic status are being forced to move, as they are unable to pay the rising rents. This affects their well-being through reduced residential stability, in addition to depriving them of these adaptation measures.
Temporary or permanent relocation due to natural disasters generates economic and psychosocial inequalities. Seniors, people with reduced mobility, people from culturally diverse backgrounds, immigrants, low-income households and residents of remote or Indigenous communities have a limited capacity to adapt to this kind of drastic change. These groups suffer a loss of assets and identity, compounded by limited access to financial and social resources.
The publication of flood zone maps can lead to property devaluation, particularly for less expensive homes.
The same applies to the distribution of cartographic data for other types of climate phenomena (hail, fire, coastal submergence, etc.). Insurers may also decide to increase insurance premiums, or to not cover high-risk areas at all.
Low-income households struggle to pay the insurance premiums needed to protect their property against climate risks. This financial inaccessibility can exacerbate or generate inequalities in the economic situation and quality of life (physical and mental well-being) of low-income households.
Tax incentives for home renovation and energy efficiency are mainly aimed at affluent or middle-class households, and often ignore the rental sector.
Under the Paris Agreement, governments must protect the rights of people with disabilities as they combat climate change. Although Canada included a reference to people with disabilities in its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), the text is vague and lacks substantive measures for consulting with and protecting the rights of these individuals.
What’s more, Canada’s adaptation policy makes no mention of the rights of people with disabilities, describing them simply as a vulnerable group without offering any specific solutions. This population group’s lack of representation in climate negotiations is a crucial inequality.
A number of weather warning systems inform the population of the dangers posed by climate-related events such as extreme cold and heat waves. Certain population groups may have difficulty accessing these resources:
- Those who are illiterate
- Immigrants who do not speak French or English
- Isolated people with no means of communication
- Individuals with psychological disabilities
- People experiencing homelessness
This inability to access warnings and planning documents can create inequalities in people's ability to adapt based on government recommendations. To remedy this inequality, it is essential to diversify communication channels and actively involve vulnerable populations in all stages of planning these systems.
